Our analysis reveal that ARE-binding protein may affect mRNA 3′ end processing and that this contributes to mRNA destabilization.”
“Standard microbiology references describe Stenotrophomonas maltophilia as oxidase negative and variable with respect to utilization of lactose and sucrose. Analysis of a collection of 766 S. maltophilia isolates indicated that approximately 20% are oxidase positive and that this species should be

reevaluated for other phenotypes, including oxidative fermentation of lactose and sucrose.”
“To address whether saccharide moieties of blood groups A, B and O antigens modulate hemolytic activity of Naja naja atra cardiotoxins (CTXs), the present study was carried out. Unlike other CTX isotoxins, hemolytic activity of CTX3 toward blood group O cholesterol-depleted red blood cells Selleck PARP inhibitor (RBCs) was notably lower than that of blood groups A and B cholesterol-depleted RBCs. Conversion of blood MK-1775 Cell Cycle inhibitor group B RBCs into blood group O RBCs by alpha-galactosidase treatment attenuated the susceptibility for hemolytic activity of CTX3, suggesting that H-antigen affected

hemolytic potency of CTX3. Pre-incubation with H-trisaccharide reduced hemolytic activity and membrane-damaging activity of CTX3. Moreover, CTX3 showed a higher binding capability with H-trisaccharide than other CTXs did. CD spectra showed that the binding with H-trisaccharide induced changes in gross conformation of CTX3. Self-quenching studies revealed that oligomerization of CTX3 was check details affected in the presence of H-trisaccharide. Taken together, our data suggest that the binding of CTX3

with H-antigen alters its membrane-bound mode, thus reducing its hemolytic activity toward blood group O cholesterol-depleted RBCs. (C) 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“Background: Heavy alcohol consumption in HIV patients is an increasing health concern. Applying the drinking motivational model to HIV primary care patients, drinking motives (drinking to cope with negative affect, for social facilitation, and in response to social pressure) were associated with alcohol consumption at a baseline interview. However, whether these motives predict continued heavy drinking or alcohol dependence in this population is unknown.\n\nMethods: Participants were 254 heavy-drinking urban HIV primary care patients (78.0% male; 94.5% African American or Hispanic) participating in a randomized trial of brief drinking-reduction interventions. Drinking motive scales, as well as measures of alcohol consumption and alcohol dependence, were administered at baseline. Consumption and dependence measures were re-administered at the end of treatment two months later. Regression analyses tested whether baseline drinking motive scale scores predicted continued heavy drinking and alcohol dependence status at the end of treatment, and whether motives interacted with treatment condition.

qnrS did not co-transfer with ESBL genes. Clonal spread of PMQR genes harboring ESBL-KP isolates was observed in three hospitals. QnrA, which is common in Asia, was unexpectedly absent in ESBL-KP in Taiwan. Aside from transmission via clonal spread for ciprofloxacin-resistant ESBL-KP, concomitant transference of PMQR genes with either bla(CTX-M) or bla(SHV) via plasmid was common.”
“The dopaminergic system is known to play a central role in reward-based learning (Schultz, 2006), yet it was also observed to be involved see more when only cognitive feedback is given (Aron et al., 2004). Within the domain of information-integration category learning, in which information from

several stimulus dimensions has to be integrated predecisionally (Ashby and Maddox, 2005), the importance of contingent feedback is well established (Maddox et al., 2003). We examined the common neural correlates of reward anticipation and prediction error in this task. Sixteen

subjects performed two parallel information-integration tasks within Raf phosphorylation a single event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging session but received a monetary reward only for one of them. Similar functional areas including basal ganglia structures were activated in both task versions. In contrast, a single structure, the nucleus accumbens, showed higher activation during monetary reward anticipation compared with the anticipation of cognitive feedback in information-integration learning. Additionally, this activation was predicted by measures of intrinsic motivation in the cognitive feedback task and by measures of extrinsic motivation in the rewarded task. Our results indicate that, although all other structures implicated in

category learning are not significantly affected by altering the type of reward, the nucleus accumbens responds to the positive incentive properties of an expected reward depending on the specific type of the reward.”
“We present the case of an Afghan woman with a renal segmental artery false aneurysm of the right kidney due to a shell splinter injury. Stent-assisted coil embolization of the aneurysm is described in detail.”
“Background: Overweight and obesity have become a global epidemic. The prevalence of overweight and obesity Nocodazole Cytoskeletal Signaling inhibitor among U. S. adolescents has almost tripled in the last 30 years. Results from recent systematic reviews demonstrate that no single, particular intervention or strategy successfully assists overweight or obese adolescents in losing weight. An understanding of factors that influence healthy weight-loss behaviors among overweight and obese female adolescents promotes effective, multi-component weight-loss interventions. There is limited evidence demonstrating associations between demographic variables, body-mass index, and weight perception among female adolescents trying to lose weight. There is also a lack of previous studies examining the association of the accuracy of female adolescents’ weight perception with their efforts to lose weight.

9ug/mL; p=0.008).\n\nConclusions: Although HIV status was associated with increased inflammatory markers, our results highlight reduced morbidity in those receiving ART and underscore the need of pro-actively extending these services to HIV-uninfected older adults, beyond mere provision at fixed clinics. Providing health services through regular community chronic disease screening would ensure health care reaches all older adults in need.”
“BACKGROUND. PKC412 ic50 Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have identified numerous common SNPs associated with prostate cancer (CaP) risk in men of European descent. This study evaluates GWAS SNPs associated with CaP

in African Americans AP26113 price (AAs) and European Americans (EA).\n\nMETHODS. Eight hundred SNPs were genotyped, including 32 from European-based GWAS and 35 flanking SNPs, in 417 AA and 455 EA cases from the NC-LA Prostate Cancer Project (PCaP) and compared to 925 AA and 1,687 EA controls from Illumina’s iControlDB. The 32 GWAS SNPs were evaluated for their predictive power to discriminate between cases and controls using ROC curves.\n\nRESULTS. Of the 32 GWAS SNPs, 13 were significant at P < 0.05 in EA and 4 in AA (rs6983267, rs7017300, rs1859962,

rs6501455). Three of 35 flanking SNPs, all from chromosome 8q, reached study-wide significance (P < 3.5 x 10(-5)); 2 in AA (rs10505476 rs6985504) and 1 in EA (rs16901970). Among the remaining 656 SNPs, 2 were associated with CaP (P < 3.5 x 10(-5)): rs1472606 (OR: 1.43 in EA) and rs9351265 (OR: 1.48 in AA) both in intergenic regions. For the 32 GWASSNPs, ROC plots yielded AUC estimates too low for clinical use (EA AUC = 0.60 and AA AUC = 0.56).\n\nCONCLUSIONS. This study confirms a large proportion of CaP associated regions implicated by European-based GWAS and provides evidence that some regions may be important in AA CaP risk. Despite the identification of a large panel of GWAS replicated SNPs for CaP, this panel is not appropriate for clinical

screening. Prostate 71: 881-891, 2011. LY2157299 (C) 2010 Wiley-Liss, Inc.”
“Background and objective: Pulmonary disease is the most common complication in patients with common variable immunodeficiency (CVID) or X-linked agammaglobulinaemia (XLA). Pulmonary disease may progress despite immunoglobulin replacement therapy. In this study pulmonary complications were compared in patients with CVID or XLA.\n\nMethods: Pulmonary complications were evaluated in 115 patients (76 with CVID and 39 with XLA) by reviewing hospital records of chest infections, pulmonary function tests and high-resolution CT scans.\n\nResults: Thirty-two patients with XLA (82%) presented with 59 episodes of pneumonia before diagnosis, whereas 15 patients (38.4%) experienced pneumonia after immunoglobulin replacement therapy (1.67 vs 0.45 episodes per patient per year).

The aim of this review is to evaluate whether the most commonly used lipid-lowering nutraceuticals (i.e., soluble fibers, phytosterols, garlic, soy proteins, monacolins, policosanols, berberine

and n-3 fatty acids) also have some positive effects on other cardiovascular disease risk factors, on instrumental biomarkers of cardiovascular disease risk or the risk of cardiovascular events. Beyond red yeast rice and n-3 fatty acids, whose use was related to a significant and reliable decrease in cardiovascular disease morbidity and mortality, no evidence is available that demonstrates a preventive effect of lipid-lowering BAY 57-1293 order nutraceuticals on hard cardiovascular outcomes. However, for berberine and soluble fibers, the evidence of a positive multimetabolic see more effect is growing, contributing to a better control of both glucose and lipids values that consequently could be useful in the management of metabolic syndrome.”
“Objectives To explore similarities and differences in policy content and the political context of the three main English government reports on health inequalities: the Black Report (1980), the Acheson Enquiry (1998), and the Marmot Review (2010).\n\nMethods Thematic policy and context analysis of the Black Report (1980), the Acheson Enquiry (1998), and the Marmot Review (2010) in

terms of: (i) underpinning theoretical principles; (ii) policy recommendations; (iii) the political contexts in which each was released; and (iv) their actual or potential influence on research and policy.\n\nResults There were great similarities and very few differences in terms of both the theoretical principles guiding the recommendations of these reports and the focus of the recommendations themselves. However, there were clear differences in terms of the political contexts of each report, as well as their subsequent impacts on research and policy.\n\nConclusion The paper calls into question the progress of health inequalities research,

GS-9973 mouse the use of evidence and of the links between research, politics and policy.”
“Clostridium difficile infection is the most common cause of severe cases of antibiotic-associated diarrhea (AAD) and is a significant health burden. Recent increases in the rate of C. difficile infection have paralleled the emergence of a specific phylogenetic clade of C. difficile strains (ribotype 027; North American pulsed-field electrophoresis 1 [NAP1]; restriction endonuclease analysis [REA] group BI). Initial reports indicated that ribotype 027 strains were associated with increased morbidity and mortality and might be hypervirulent. Although subsequent work has raised some doubt as to whether ribotype 027 strains are hypervirulent, the strains are considered epidemic isolates that have caused severe outbreaks across the globe.

The results give experimental support to previous models and hypotheses and allow observations unavailable using only the natural substrate.”
“The immune adapter protein ADAP (adhesion and degranulation promoting adapter protein) plays an important role in integrin-dependent DMXAA cell line migration and adhesion processes as a consequence of T cell stimulation. ADAP undergoes multiple phosphorylation events during T cell receptor (TCR) or chemokine receptor stimulation. The role of individual phosphotyrosines

for protein complex formation and the regulation of cellular adhesion are still under debate. Here, we use peptide pull-down assays and quantitative mass spectrometry to identify interaction partners of site-specifically phosphorylated ADAP sequences. Phosphotyrosine peptide motifs covering Y595, Y625, and Y771 and the corresponding nonphosphorylated sequences were covalently coupled to agarose beads and incubated with Jurkat T cell lysates. For unambiguous differentiation between phosphorylation-specific and nonspecific protein interaction, we employed two different isotope labeling techniques: stable isotope labeling of amino acids in cell culture (SILAC) and enzymatic O-18-labeling, both in combination with high-resolution

mass spectrometry. In addition to previously SNX-5422 datasheet known SH2 domain-based interactions of ADAP with SLP76, we identified novel ADAP interaction partners – such as the Ras GTPase activating protein – which belong to the larger TCR proximal signaling complex. The results show that both isotope labeling techniques are well suited for distinguishing phosphorylation-specific peptide-protein interactions from the background.”
“Background: Treatment with specific beta-blockers and doses recommended by guidelines is often not achieved in practice. We evaluated an intervention directed to the pharmacy to improve prescribing.\n\nMethods

and Results: We conducted a pragmatic cluster-randomized trial, where facilities (n = 12) with patients (n = 220) were the clusters. Eligible patients had a beta-blocker prescription that was MG-132 nmr not guideline concordant. Level 1 intervention included information to a pharmacist on facility guideline concordance. Level 2 also provided a list of patients not meeting guideline goals. Intervention and follow-up periods were each 6 months. Achievement of full concordance with recommendations was low (4%-5%) in both groups, primarily due to lack of tolerability. However, compared with level 1, the level 2 intervention was associated with 1.9-fold greater odds of improvement in prescribing (95% confidence interval [CI] 1.1-3.2). Level 2 patients also had greater odds of a higher dose (1.9, 95% CI 1.1-3.3). The intervention was aided by the patient lists provided, the electronic medical record system, and staff support.\n\nConclusions: In actual practice, full achievement of guideline goals was low. However, a simple intervention targeting pharmacy moved patients toward guideline goals.

Patients who experienced an INR higher than 5 were designated as case patients; those who received warfarin for at least as many days as the case patients but who did not experience an INR more than 5 were deemed control

patients. Controls were matched to cases in a 2:1 ratio by age, sex, INR OSI-906 cost goal, and type of warfarin therapy (new start or continuation).\n\nMeasurements and Main ResultsA total of 87 case patients were matched to 174 controls. Ten different hypothesized risk factors were examined. Two variables, severity of illness score (odds ratio [OR] 4.89, p<0.001) and poor nutritional status (OR 4.27, p<0.001), demonstrated strong independent associations with risk of excessive anticoagulation. Administration of interacting drugs that highly potentiate warfarin’s effect (OR 2.26, p=0.011) and concurrent diarrheal illness (OR 4.75, p<0.001) also displayed a statistically significant risk for excessive anticoagulation.\n\nConclusionEven in a highly standardized system for warfarin dosing by a pharmacist-managed protocol, higher disease severity and poor nutritional status placed hospitalized patients at greater U0126 clinical trial risk of experiencing excessive anticoagulation. In addition, administration of interacting drugs that highly potentiate warfarin’s effect or the occurrence of diarrheal

illness may predict increased risk.”
“Objective. Initial optimized prescription of Chinese herb medicine for unstable angina (UA). Methods. Based on partially observable Markov decision process model (POMDP), we choose hospitalized selleck chemicals llc patients of 3 syndrome elements, such as qi deficiency, blood stasis, and turbid phlegm for the data mining, analysis, and objective evaluation of the diagnosis and treatment of UA at a deep level in order to optimize the prescription of Chinese herb medicine for UA. Results. The recommended treatment options of UA for qi deficiency, blood stasis, and phlegm syndrome patients were as follows: Milkvetch Root + Tangshen + Indian Bread + Largehead Atractylodes Rhizome (ADR = 0.96630); Danshen Root + Chinese Angelica + Safflower + Red Peony Root

+ Szechwan Lovage Rhizome Orange Fruit (ADR = 0.76); Snakegourd Fruit + Longstamen Onion Bulb + Pinellia Tuber + Dried Tangerine peel + Largehead Atractylodes Rhizome + Platycodon Root (ADR = 0.658568). Conclusion. This study initially optimized prescriptions for UA based on POMDP, which can be used as a reference for further development of UA prescription in Chinese herb medicine.”
“Barriers to migration are numerous in stream environments and can occur from anthropogenic activities (such as dams and culverts) or natural processes (such as log jams or dams constructed by beaver (Castor canadensis)). Identification of barriers can be difficult when obstructions are temporary or incomplete providing passage periodically.

“
“This study aimed to investigate changes in the deep abductor muscles, gluteus

medius (GMED), piriformis (PIRI), and gluteus minimus (GMIN), occurring in association with differing stages Of unilateral degenerative hip joint pathology (mild: n = 6, and advanced: n = 6). Muscle volume assessed via magnetic resonance imaging was compared for each muscle between sides, and between groups (mild, advanced, control (n = 12)). GMED and PIRI muscle volume was smaller around the affected hip selleck inhibitor in subjects with advanced pathology (p < 0.01, p < 0.05) while no significant asymmetry was present in the mild and control groups. GMIN showed a trend towards asymmetry in the advanced group (p = 0.1) and the control group (p = 0.076) which appears to have been associated with leg dominance. Between group differences revealed

a significant difference for the GMED muscle reflecting larger muscle volumes on the affected side in subjects with mild pathology, compared to matched control hips. This information Suggests that while GMED appears to atrophy in subjects with advanced hip joint pathology, it may be predisposed to hypertrophy in early stages of pathology. Assessment and exercise prescription methods should consider that the response of muscles of the abductor synergy to joint pathology is not homogenous between muscles or across stages of pathology. (C) 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“Ion-irradiation induced diffusion and click here the phase transformation of a bixbyite-fluorite related rare earth oxide thin films are studied. This work is focused on yttrium sesquioxide, Y2O3, thin films deposited on Si (100) substrates

using the ion beam sputtering technique (IBS). As-deposited samples were annealed ant then irradiated at cryogenic temperature (80 IC) with 260 key Xe2+ at different fluences. The irradiated thin oxide films are characterized by X-ray diffraction. A cubic to monoclinic phase transformation was observed. Analysis of this phenomenon is done in terms of residual stresses. Stress measurements as a function of irradiation fluences were realised using the XRD-sin(2) psi method. Stress evolution and kinetic of the phase transformation are compared and leads to the role-played by the nucleation of point selleck and extended defects. (C) 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.”
“This paper shows the versatility of artificial neural networks (ANN) and radial basis functions (RBF) applied to electromagnetic analyses with Medium Wave samples. A new approach is given from an exposure point of view, analyzing field levels in wide areas. In particular supervised ANN are used to distinguish electromagnetic field areas, if levels are above or below a certain threshold. The novel application Electric-Frontier ANN (EF-ANN) allows us to compare the performances of different neural network topologies (linear and recurrent), and it also gives us the possibility to create maps via geographic information systems (GISs).

Fractional anisotropy (FA) and mean diffusivity (MD) values at each time point (baseline, day 1, day 5, and day 10) were quantified from hippocampus, thalamus, hypothalamus, cudate-putamen, frontal cortex, sensorimotor cortex, corpus callosum, cingulum, and cerebral peduncle. Behavioral tests were performed at baseline, day 5, and day 10. A decrease in FA values with time

was observed in all three groups. At day 10, dose-dependent decreases in FA and MD values were observed in all of the regions compared with baseline. Behavioral data obtained in this study correlate with FA values. Radiation-induced affective disorders were not radiation dose dependent, insofar as the anxiety-like symptoms at the lower dose (3 Gy) mimics to the symptoms with the higher dose (8 Gy) level but not with the moderate dose. However, there was a dose-dependent decline HM781-36B supplier in cognitive function as well as FA values. Behavioral data support the DTI indices, so it is suggested that DTI may be a useful tool for noninvasive monitoring of radiation-induced brain injury. (c) 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.”
“Blanco JA, Stead M, Krieger A, Viventi J, Marsh WR, Lee KH, Worrell GA, Litt B. Unsupervised classification of high-frequency oscillations Selleck Cilengitide in human neocortical epilepsy and control patients. J Neurophysiol 104: 2900-2912, 2010. First published September 1, 2010; doi: 10.1152/jn.01082.2009. High-frequency

oscillations (HFOs) have been observed in animal and human intracranial recordings during both normal and aberrant brain states. It has learn more been proposed that the relationship between subclasses of these oscillations can be used to identify epileptic brain. Studies of HFOs in epilepsy have been hampered by selection bias arising primarily out of the need to reduce the volume of data so that clinicians can manually review it. In this study, we introduce an algorithm for detecting and classifying these

signals automatically and demonstrate the tractability of analyzing a data set of unprecedented size, over 31,000 channel-hours of intracranial electroencephalographic (iEEG) recordings from micro- and macroelectrodes in humans. Using an unsupervised approach that does not presuppose a specific number of clusters in the data, we show direct evidence for the existence of distinct classes of transient oscillations within the 100- to 500-Hz frequency range in a population of nine neocortical epilepsy patients and two controls. The number of classes we find, four (three plus one putative artifact class), is consistent with prior studies that identify “ripple” and “fast ripple” oscillations using human-intensive methods and, additionally, identifies a less examined class of mixed-frequency events.”
“We present a 46-year-old man with a sudden onset of severe back pain following leg pain. An emergent computed tomography showed acute type B aortic dissection.

Pearson’s Chi-squared tests were used for comparing proportions of ambulance calls across the week for CVDs (I00-99), mental and behavioral disorders (F00-F99), and external causes (S00-T98, V01-Y98). The ratio of incidence of ambulance calls on Saturday, Sunday, and Monday versus the rest of week was also calculated.\n\nResults. There is a significant daily variation (p < 0.001) in calls for CVDs in men and women aged 18-59 and women

aged 60 years and older, with increased numbers of calls on weekends and Mondays varying between 2 and 3% excess calls. For mental and behavioral Cilengitide inhibitor disorders, a similar pattern was found in the age group of 18-59 year-olds. Ratios for the number of calls during weekends and Mondays vs. the rest of the week were 1.05 (95% CI: 1.02-1.08) among women and 1.02 (95% CI: 1.00-1.05) among men. For external causes, a significant variation and an increase in ambulance calls during Saturdays, Sundays, and Mondays from 4 to 17% excess calls was observed for both age MAPK Inhibitor high throughput screening and gender

groups.\n\nConclusions. The observed daily variations in ambulance calls with an increased number of calls on weekends and Mondays for CVDs, mental and behavioral disorders, and external causes may be associated with excessive alcohol consumption on the weekends. Further research using data on individual levels of alcohol consumption are warranted.”
“A GaN HEMT with local doped barrier layer is proposed in this paper. The DC and RF characteristics of the proposed GaN HEMT structure is analyzed by using 2D numerical simulation. The results show that the breakdown

voltage is 23% larger BIX 01294 supplier than that of the entire doped barrier layer structure due to the extension of depletion layer width between gate and drain electrodes, which reduces the electric field peak value at the right corner of the gate. A theoretical maximum output power density of 16.2 W/mm has been achieved, which is similar to 34% larger than that of the entire doped barrier layer structure, and 7% larger than that of the unintentionally doped barrier layer structure. And the RF simulation results show that the proposed GaN HEMT also improved the maximum stable gain (MSG) by 0.8 dB up to 25 GHz due to the decrease of the gate-drain capacitance compared to the unintentionally doped and entire doped barrier layer structures. (C) 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“Osteosarcoma is a type of malignant bone tumor with high metastasis and poor prognosis. Previous studies have demonstrated the involvement of LIM kinase 1 (LIMK1) in the proliferation of osteosarcoma cells. LIMK1 is overexpressed in human osteosarcoma tissues and cell lines. To further study LIMK1-associated mechanisms, we used shRNA targeted to the LIMK1 gene to block its expression in the osteosarcoma cell lines MG63 and U2OS.

\n\nConclusions: BEV patients incurred about twice the cost

of SU patients and more than twice the cost of SOR patients, mainly due to higher drug and i.v. administration costs. Patients who received SU incurred the highest cost for AE management. (C) 2012 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.”
“Leaf-cutting ants (Formicidae: Myrmicinae) have been considered herbivorous generalists; however, some plant species escape their attack because of the presence of secondary metabolites. The main objective of this study was to determine the insecticide effect of foliage extracts of Tithonia diversifolia on Atta cephalotes workers (Hymenoptera: Myrmicinae) and GDC941 define the potential application ways and concentrations. Extracts were obtained from fresh and GSK2879552 Epigenetics inhibitor dry T.

diversifolia foliage, using ethanol as solvent. The principal metabolic compounds were identified and the extracts in three concentrations (0.5 ml/l, 1.5 ml/l, and 3 ml/l) were applied to the ants in two manners: ingestion and contact. Results showed that crude extract of T. diversifolia was toxic to the ants in all concentrations and methods tested; however, dry extracts applied for contact at 1.5-ml/l concentration produced the most efficient toxic effect to A. cephalotes workers. The study contributes to identifying an environmental sound control strategy for the leaf-cutting ant, A. cephalotes. (C) 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.”
“This is the case report of a pregnant woman who refused pregnancy termination when diagnosed with pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) functional class 2-3 at the 24th week of gestation and of her newborn. A pregnant woman with PAH functional class 2-3 was treated CBL0137 order with inhaled prostacyclin analog ( iloprost), oral sildenafil, oxygen, and low molecular weight heparin. She delivered at 32nd week by Cesarean section. The infant required oxygen up to 36th week postconceptional age and had a short steroid treatment. The mother

needed close cardiovascular monitorization, intensive oxygen and pulmonary vasodilator therapy for 2 months and was discharged with oxygen and oral iloprost treatment. A multidisciplinary approach together with pulmonary vasodilator therapy may be succesful in such a high-risk pregnant woman.”
“The properties of zeolites, and thus their suitability for different applications, are intimately connected with their structures. Synthesizing specific architectures is therefore important, but has remained challenging. Here we report a top-down strategy that involves the disassembly of a parent zeolite, UTL, and its reassembly into two zeolites with targeted topologies, IPC-2 and IPC-4. The three zeolites are closely related as they adopt the same layered structure, and they differ only in how the layers are connected.