Thus, it may be that Az is effective against LVS in vivo due to the concentration effect in macrophages. A concentration of 25 μg/ml Az was found to be effective against Francisella infections in A549 cells, suggesting that these non-phagocytic cells may be less able to concentrate the antibiotic intracellularly [22]. Az treatment has not been tested sufficiently in the clinic to know if it can be used to treat tularemia infection. In one reported case, the patient’s illness was fatal after treatment by Az, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, streptomycin, and ceftriaxone of F. tularensis [44], suggesting that the patient was extremely

ill when treatment was initiated. In another case, the patient’s symptoms decreased with a one day ceftriaxone treatment followed by a 5 day Az treatment, but symptoms PD-1/PD-L1 Inhibitor 3 supplier recurred after the treatment was completed [45]. There have been several reports of successful treatment with erythromycin, giving credence to the sensitivity of Type A strains to the macrolide class of antibiotics [46, 47]. To test the in vivo effectiveness

of Az against Francisella infections, we employed the wax-moth caterpillar model [25]. The time-course of infection of the caterpillars closely matched the published report. We extended the published report by demonstrating that wax-moth caterpillars can also be infected by F. novicida. We demonstrated that a single injection of Az increased the mean survival time of Francisella infected G. mellonella and is more effective than a similar dose of ciprofloxacin. Within a host, macrolides, including Az, inhibit APR-246 molecular weight the production of cytokines that cause inflammation and prevent the accumulation of neutrophils, which suggests immunomodulatory effects separate

from their antibacterial effects [48]. It has been shown that after Francisella infection in mice, there is a delayed response in the induction of host proinflammatory cytokines and recruitment of inflammatory cells to the site of infection, resulting in Isoconazole uncontrolled bacterial replication [49]. G. mellonella, however, does not have a similar immune response following Francisella infection. Since the therapeutic efficacy of Az cannot be observed in G. mellonella, future experiments will be conducted using a mouse model. Our results demonstrate efficacy of Az against multiple different Francisella strains and species. In future work, we will MK-1775 nmr extend the Az studies to murine infections with the fully virulent strain, F. tularensis Schu S4. Conclusion Az and other macrolide antibiotics may have a secondary benefit to patients with pneumonic tularemia infection since they also have immunomodulatory functions. Az has been used to treat non-infectious respiratory diseases such as diffuse panbronchiolitis (an inflammatory lung disease) and has been shown to reduce cytokine responses in the lungs thereby lessening the acute inflammatory response [48, 50], even at sub-antimicrobial doses.