It is argued that these are distributed in such a way as to provide magnetic field information in three axes and thus form elements of a magnetometer. Appearing to support the argument that this

is a magnetoreceptor, the effect of a magnetic pulse disappears when the upper beak is anaesthetized with local anaesthetic (Wiltschko et al., 2009). The disrupting effect of a magnetic anomaly on homing pigeon orientation also disappears when the beak is anaesthetized (Wiltschko et al., selleck chemicals 2010). Again, however, the link is indirect. It is not certain that the anaesthetic is acting directly on the magnetoreceptor in these experiments, and the effects of local anaesthetics have been questioned (Mouritsen & Hore, 2012). A further significant cautionary note to the beak-based magnetoreceptor theory has recently emerged. A thorough study made on homing pigeons (Treiber et al., 2012) strongly suggested that the majority of cells identified as containing iron, if not all, both in the upper beak and other parts of the body, such as the skin, respiratory epithelium and feather folliculi are macrophages, cells responsible for engulfing waste and pathogens in the body.

Treiber et al. (2012) argue that the structures described in previous work are thus not sensory cells at all. This raises the question of whether a magnetoreceptor exists in the beak. However, the work of Treiber et al. (2012) should not be over interpreted. While the burden INK 128 chemical structure of proof is on those who argue that the beak is the site of magnetoreception (Mouritsen, 2012), Treiber et al. (2012) do acknowledge that there may be magnetoreceptors in some as yet unidentified location in the beak. Added to this, a number of behavioural studies supporting magnetoreception in the beak have been identified (Wiltschko

& Wiltschko, Phosphoprotein phosphatase 2013). A second potential site of a magnetoreceptor has also been identified, in the inner ear lagena of homing pigeons, using electrophysiology recordings (Wu & Dickman, 2011, 2012). Recent evidence from electron microscopy has identified iron-rich cells in the inner ear (Lauwers et al., 2013), although they do not fit all the properties of a magnetoreceptor. Furthermore, experiments on homing pigeons did not show any deficit in homing with the inner ear removed (Wallraff, 1972), so unlike the beak-based sense, behavioural evidence is lacking. As noted at the start of this review, a recent review of magnetoreception suggested that aspects of this field suffered from a chronic disease in its lack of repeatability of findings (Mouritsen & Hore, 2012). It could be argued that this applies equally to all aspects of bird navigation, with many experiments failing to repeat others, or contradictory results within and between different disciplines.