4 5 Despite significant progress in managing cardiovascular disorders (CVD), molecular mechanisms underlying pathological conditions such as plaque formation remain largely unclear. As a result, early detection is difficult, leading to a high rate of morbidity and mortality. Advanced applications of nanotechnology for ex vivo diagnostic and in vivo imaging tools and marker/contrast-agents are being refined with the goal

of detecting disease at its early stages.6 Ultimately, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical imaging at the level of a single cell, combined with the ability to monitor the effectiveness of therapy, will provide accurate diagnosis not only at an earlier disease stage but Gemcitabine chemical structure ideally before the onset of symptoms. In fact, the development of nanomaterials that have the ability to interact with matter at the submicron scale could potentially extend subcellular and molecular detection beyond the limits of conventional diagnostic techniques (Figure 1C). This would provide personalized information Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical that could be

used to assess risk for developing a pathological condition, further aiding in the optimization of individualized therapy. These types of point-of-care (POC) devices, such as bio-nanochips, will be reviewed in depth later in this issue. Figure 1 Schematic presentation of various nanotechnological approaches for Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical advanced CVD diagnosis and therapy: Nanoparticles for (A) multimodal image contrast and (B) improved treatment of CVD can be targeted to immune cells or the specific ligands presented … Another application of nanotechnology to CVD involves nanotextured materials. Nanotextured stent coatings, e.g., titania7 and hydroxyapatite,8 have been applied to enhance endothelial cell attachment and proliferation for Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical the reendothelialization

of vascular walls. Moreover, due to their nanoporous morphology, these stents can be used for loading and controlled release Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical of therapeutic substances (Figure 1D). While the therapeutic potential of many novel agents on the molecular scale is indisputable, several roadblocks can hamper their clinical performance. These include PAK6 unfavorable physico-chemical properties (e.g., water insolubility) and a multiplicity of biological barriers that prevent therapeutic and diagnostic contrast agents from reaching their destinations. As a result, the diseased tissue accumulation of molecularly targeted agents following intravenous administration is extremely low (0.01% to 0.001% of the injected dose).9 This means that higher doses of the agents must be administered to patients for sufficient therapeutic response, creating a narrow efficiency/toxicity therapeutic window.10 Thus, the perfect agent should be equipped with a number of imperative characteristics, including stability in biological milieu, proper solubility, and preferential accumulation at the disease loci, to list a few.11 12 Obviously, no single molecule can simultaneously deal with these tasks.